Martin Kreutzer
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canarias LPGC
Wilhelm Neunzig
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona1
ABSTRACT
Commissioned by the Department of Education, Culture and Sport of the
Autonomous Government of the Canary Islands, the co-authors of this
article describe a methodology for teaching training seminars designed to
reconsider and define the validity of the design of CALL exercises developed
by teachers of the subject and aimed at solving specific problems
presented by their own students. A three-stage system of evaluation was
used to collect empirical data in support of the validity of the initial hypothesis.
KEYWORDS
CALL, Teacher training methodology, empirical evaluation, virtual teacher,
seminar, workshop
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
In the context of the increasingly wide range of self-access language
learning programs and the increased sophistication of authoring systems—
especially with the qualitative change brought about by the shift from
DOS to WINDOWS, it is now time to reconsider one of the most often
focused on aspects of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL, or
ELAO to use the Spanish acronym): the design of CALL exercises by subject
teachers aimed at solving specific problems of their students. For some
time now, self-instruction among teachers based on the manuals included
with the various programs of educational software (authoring systems)
66 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
has been confined to a limited number of addicts or “freaks,” since, as a
result of the heavy teaching load, secondary teachers do not have sufficient
time to pursue their interest in the matter, or to design self access
exercises of sufficiently high quality, not only in terms of pedagogical criteria
but also in terms of technical and ergonomic factors. To facilitate
access to CALL for secondary teachers, various training seminars were
organized, which would, it was hoped, serve as a springboard to enable
the teachers to go on to design their own self access exercises for their
own language students (see Kreutzer et al. 1993 and Ensinger et al. 1993).
In the light of the vast technical possibilities which were becoming available
in authoring systems, the seminars gradually took on the nature of
more a demonstration of these technical possibilities rather than a workshop,
as they had originally been conceived. The practical results (that is,
the actual exercises designed by the seminar participants) became more
and more disappointing, and subsequent application of the acquired skills
to continue the ongoing production of exercises seemed increasingly improbable.
APPROACH
Within the Enseñanza de lengua y traducción asistida por ordenador
(ELTAO) working group (and also within other working groups), there
began to be heard voices questioning the viability of continued involvement
of teachers in the design of CALL programs for their own students,
and implying that the field should be left to the specialists who had sufficient
time and skill to design the exercises, as had been the case with other
teaching materials such as textbooks, workbooks, and teaching videos.
Faced with this dilemma—which can basically be formulated as a question:
Is there any point in continued teacher training in the field of CALL?—
our research set out to find a reliable answer which might clarify the issue.
The authors approached the Department of Education, Culture and Sport
of the Canary Island Government with a proposal to run a teacher training
seminar which would include a training phase, a controlled application
phase, and an evaluation phase. The seminar was held in Las Palmas
de Gran Canaria, 22-27 April 1996, and the evaluation took place on 27-
28 May 1996.
PHASE 1: THE SEMINAR
FRAMEWORK OF THE SEMINAR
In order to obtain reliable results which would be applicable in practice,
it was necessary to run a seminar which would exhibit many of the stanVolume
14 Numbers 2-4 67
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
dard characteristics of such seminars.
1. Open Enrollment
The only entrance condition for participants was that they should
have some language teaching experience and basic knowledge of
Windows.
2. Twenty Hours of Class
The seminar was divided in four-hour blocks which were conducted
after working hours, as is normal practice in Spain for such training
courses;
3. Award of Curricular Credits
The curricular credits awarded for the seminar were amounted to
official government recognition leading to an obligation to participate
and to carry out the required exercises.
4. Small Groups
Seminar groups were limited to a maximum of ten students per trainer.
This ten-to-one ratio is the optimum ratio obtainable in Spain in seminars
which include practical or workshop sessions.
Since teachers in Spain do not (yet) have much experience in CALL
programs, classes in Spain generally follow a set textbook (so that teachers
are not accustomed to designing their own specific materials), and
computer users have a tendency to “play” with the machine (experimenting
by trial and error) and set themselves unobtainable objectives, it was
necessary to develop a methodology for the seminar which would optimize
the use of our time to ensure the following:
• a wide pedagogical overview of the field of CALL;
• a view of the range of possibilities offered by CALL programs and
their objectives;
• systematic learning of a basic repertoire of computer commands for
the design of standard programs; and
• the complete design of at least one exercise which could be subsequently
put into practice with the teacher’s own students in the application
phase.
RUNNING THE SEMINAR
It was decided to adopt a trainer-led approach to the seminar so as to
achieve the above objectives and to prevent tangential discussions (though
recognizing that they can be positive in other contexts). The seminar had
18 participants and was divided into four blocks: theoretical introduction,
practical introduction, demonstration and workshop.
Block 1: Theoretical Introduction.
The first part of the seminar consisted of a general introduction to CALL
68 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
concepts, beginning with a historical look back at the first programs making
use of the computer for language learning, which were based on the
concept of one question and one associated correct answer, and gradually
moving on to a theory based examination of the multiple possibilities of
modern authoring systems (parser, multiple answers, prompters, windows,
hypertext, colors, type fonts, graphics, audio, etc.). Parallel to the introduction
of the various concepts of CALL, the trainers presented the various
commands and syntax of the language of the authoring system chosen
for the seminar.2 In this way, the conceptual input—of utmost importance
for the understanding of the new medium in which participants were only
beginning to work—was related to the actual language of authoring systems
per se within a pedagogical perspective. This approach allowed the
trainers to save time and enabled the participants to associate pedagogical
concepts with computer commands. The trainers also hoped to avoid the
participants’ merely playing with the commands at machine level.
Block 2: Practical Introduction
In keeping with the concept of a “trainer led” seminar, it was decided to
begin the practical section (the learning of the computer commands) by
developing an initial script consisting of a single sentence question which
required a single correct answer. Participants copies this script on their
computers. Based on this single phrase, which to some extent reflected
the earliest days of CALL, the various concepts and basic commands required
to design a (simple) CALL exercise were introduced (see fig. 1).
Siete islas forman el Archiélago Canario.
La isla más poblada es Gran Canaria.
La capital de Gran Canaria es:
Fig. 1. Example of Window
Later, in the evaluation phase, almost all of the participants approved of
this learning model; it allowed them to acquire confidence with the medium
gradually since every stage of programming was directly reflected
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 69
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
on the screen. The participants stated that their acquisition of the same
basic knowledge at the same time facilitated participation in the debates
and discussions which emerged outside the actual seminar itself.
Block 3: Demonstration
Having presented the basic skills for the design of an exercise, in the
next block the presenters focused on a guided presentation of CALL exercises
which included the following demonstrations:
1. A demonstration of the most common errors made in designing
CALL exercises
These errors were arrived at by analysis of commercially available
CALL materials. The demonstration was carried out with the aim of
helping the participants to avoid making these kinds of errors. The
most important errors were
• errors in man-machine interaction
Especially serious are unclear signals of what students are supposed
to do at each stage of the exercise. If the screen gives students
various ways of achieving the same objective (e.g., typing
something or using the mouse), this lack of clarity can lead to
confusion rather than facilitating the task. The same can be said
about technical instructions. Very often, all the instructions are
given at the beginning of the exercise, and, when the time comes to
use them, students cannot remember them.
• errors in the programmed response
This error is very widespread. Instead of including “intelligent”
comments or explanations (e.g., a clue to guide students to find
the solution or to help in some other way), the computer is limited
to answering, good/bad, correct/wrong, etc., which can be extremely
frustrating for students. An “intelligent” response which
strikes us as being especially inadequate is the one which gives
praise to students after five attempts at finding the right answer in
the absence of any clues.
• errors in pedagogical design
A frequent error is the underuse or indeed overuse of the medium.
A language exercise which offers so many simultaneous options
that the screen begins to resemble a high-tech cockpit has a negative
effect on the primary objective of the exercise, which is language
learning. On the other hand, if the exercise does not offer
pedagogically adequate possibilities, such as employing graphic
resources (or voices in a dialogue exercise), students will quickly
lose interest in learning through CALL. Many exercises also contain
discrepancies between the linguistic level of the language used
in the exercise and the proficiency level of the student for whom
70 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
the exercise is intended. Often, for example, the vocabulary employed
in an exercise is at a much more advanced level than the
grammatical problem which the exercise sets out to address.
• errors arising from not recognizing the limitations of the medium
It is sometimes quite evident that the designer of an exercise has
not borne in mind that the more open an answer, the more possibilities
there are for correct answers from the student. Since it is
impossible in such cases to program all the correct answers, the
computer’s response will be limited to a censorious “incorrect”
in the case of many totally correct student answers. This situation
is clearly unacceptable from a pedagogical point of view.
2. A demonstration of advice, clues and criteria which should be borne
in mind when designing exercises or teaching materials for computer
assisted language learning.3
• “warm-up” phase
If we are to consider the computer as a “virtual teacher,” then a
“warm-up” phase should be included at the outset of each exercise
just as in a real class. Teachers do not launch into the heart of the
lesson’s subject matter outright but, rather, try to stimulate student’s
interest in an introductory period before gradually moving towards
the area to be dealt with. Therefore, in addition to detailed information
on the content of the exercise, introductory screens should
present necessary information in an enjoyable way.
• student-machine interaction
Student-machine interaction should be fluid with no obstacles that
impede students from following the programmed steps. This fluidity
means the instructions to students should be absolutely clear.
The screen design should draw student’s attention to essential information
in an attractive configuration and should also incorporate
the findings of ergonomic studies with respect to colors, letter
size, text, photo, and graphics distribution.
• “virtual” teacher-student interaction
Since students cannot ask the teacher questions, it is important
that an exercise fully achieve its teaching objective. The objective,
therefore, must be clearly defined before beginning the design of
the exercise. It is especially important to achieve “intelligent” responses
to student input, whether correct or otherwise. When students
cannot find a solution, they must be helped to do so, and the
computer affords many ways of helping. Clues can be incorporated
in the form of comments, rules, dictionaries, graphics, voice
aids, highlighted or marked words and phrases, etc. It should also
be possible for students to obtain correct solutions or to give up if
the exercise is beyond their level of proficiency. The “virtual” teacher
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 71
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
must formulate questions in such a way that the number of anticipated
answers is limited. In addition, a standard default “incorrect”
response is to be avoided in cases in which it is impossible to
foresee all the correct answers. In these cases, a response such as
“This answer has not been anticipated.” is more suitable.
• presentation of the topic
In the presentation of the topic, care must be taken not to provide
too much information. When the topic requires a considerable
amount of information, as can happen in exercises involving a lot
of grammatical rules, well-defined sequences containing different
objectives and requiring different knowledge should be employed
Menus permitting the student to tackle the topic in a number of
sessions should also be included. It is especially important to avoid
mixing different skills in a single exercise. If an exercise focuses on
morphology, then matters such as vocabulary and spelling should
not be allotted importance.
3. A demonstration of a program of self access exercises which had
been installed in all the computers beforehand (see fig. 2).4
Fig. 2. Presentation Screen of ¿Ahora, tú?
The purpose of this demonstration was to acquaint the participants
with a wide range of possible applications of what had presented
in the Practical Introduction. The participants were invited
to pay particular attention to one or more exercises which they
would later copy and adapt to their own subjects in the workshop
phase. This block also included reading a number of exercise scripts
¡Ahora, tú!
ejercicos
72 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
with the support of the trainers in order to study the script in a
visualization-result relationship.
Block 4: Workshop
As has been pointed out earlier, the main objective of the workshop was
to have participants, with the help of the trainers and the benefit of the
guidelines and models already presented, design an exercise which would
later be used in school with their students in the Application Phase. This
objective was an essential element in the design of the experiment. The
workshop ended with group presentations of the exercises that participants
exchanged, so that all of them would have a stock of exercises for
classroom application and various models to enable them to continue designing
additional exercises.
PHASE 2: APPLICATION
Since each seminar participant had a series of exercises ready for application
in the classroom, our main concern now was to determine students’
reactions to the exercises. We also wanted to see whether the seminar
participants continued designing CALL exercises at home, which is
essential if we are to continue with the concept of CALL development
outlined at the outset of this paper. To this end, the exercises in the “¿Ahora,
tú?” program were made available to the participants to serve as a programming
model. Regarding the classroom students’ reaction, the report
of the secondary schools EFL inspectors contained the following statement:
In the practice stage, the students were delighted with the exercises,
which the teachers had spent many hours preparing. The teachers
made a great effort to adapt the exercises to their own programs, and
next year they are going to take their students to the computer room.
Working with the computer is seen as relaxing, it stimulates the students
and they can correct themselves (de Diego 1996).
PHASE 3: EVALUATION
The evaluation of the results of the seminar was a key element in the
experiment and was carried out meticulously. It was decided to employ
three interrelated assessment systems to ensure valid results.
• a questionnaire
• group discussion
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 73
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
• individual participant report
QUESTIONNAIRE
A 14-item questionnaire was developed which covered the following
areas: benefits of the seminar, assessment of CALL as a teaching instrument,
motivation for attending the seminar and for continued use of CALL,
the role of the teacher and the computer in the teaching of foreign languages
in the future. Participants responded to items on a scale of 1-5.
Results
The results concerning the benefits of the seminar could not have been
more encouraging for the trainers. Almost all the participants believe that
the time invested was extremely well spent (see fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Subjective View of Seminar Benefits (Participants’ Responses to
question 4)
The results of the question on the assessment of CALL as a teaching instrument
were unanimous. All the participants would use CALL programs
if they became available (see fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Positive Response to the Medium (Participants’ responses to question
7)
74 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
The need to advance their training in new technologies was the motivation
of the majority of teachers attending training seminars. Virtually all
were highly motivated (see fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Ethical-Professional Motivation (Participants’ responses to questions
1, 2, and 8)
That the computer will have an important role in the future of language
learning is accepted by the majority of respondents, though the question
of the separate roles of the human teacher on one hand and the computer
on the other still arouses suspicion among the teachers (see fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Future Roll of CALL (Participants’ responses to questions 3, 9,
and 10)
Perhaps this result might be interpreted as a subliminal rejection of the
new medium. The graph illustrates the global responses to the questions
designed to gauge the future vision of the role of the computer in the
school.
Regarding motivation to continue working with the computer, the vast
majority of respondents had no intention of stopping, despite the fact that
it may not mean any form of career bonus. They seem to feel an obligation
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 75
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
to enable their students to benefit from the new learning techniques (see
fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Perspectives for Continued Work in CALL (Participants’ responses
to questions 5, 12, and 14)
The last group of questions sought to shed light on an essential point in
the conception of this experiment: whether participants felt they should
go on developing their own exercises or whether materials development
should be left to full-time CALL experts, as has happened in other areas
such as the design of audiocassettes and video teaching resources. Since
no discernible tendency emerged in the global results, we examine the
responses to questions 6, 11, and 13 in some detail (see fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Teacher Developed Exercises (Participants’ responses to questions
6, 11, and 13)
The responses to question 6 (“In my opinion, the development of selfaccess
language exercises is very important, but teachers do not have sufficient
means or skills to do it.”) highlight a somewhat pessimistic view of
76 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
the real availability of technology to teachers. However, the responses to
question 11 (“Exercises such as the ones we have tried to develop in this
seminar should be left to CALL professionals rather than class teachers
whose training and experience is in the area of class teaching”) show that
the participants rejected the contention that it was lack of training that
prevented them from developing CALL resources. In response to question
13 (“The problem that I see for the future of CALL is that publishing
houses will contract computer experts with no teaching experience to design
self-access programs.”), participants did not show any signs of general
mistrust in this respect.
GROUP DISCUSSION AND INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS’ REPORTS
These two elements of the evaluation phase can be dealt with together
since comments made in the group discussions tend to correspond to the
written evaluations made in the individual participants’ reports. While
the results of this section of the evaluation phase corroborate in general
the results of the questionnaire, they also shed light on additional aspects
of interest which were been contemplated in the original design of the
seminar. Analysis of verbal comments and written reports centered on the
three main points: (1) the seminar itself, (2) developing CALL exercises,
and (3) implementation issues in secondary schools.
The Seminar
Participants generally agreed that such seminars were positive and that
they would like to attend a second seminar to pursue the subject further.
At 20 hours, the seminar was felt to have been too short but long enough
to learn basic concepts. The fact that theory had a relatively secondary
role and that priority was given to the practical side was also seen as a
positive aspect. Regarding the practical element, all the participants agreed
that the “trainer-led” approach was successful because all were happy to
have been able to “take something real home with them” and because
everyone knew the same commands and could therefore interchange opinions
and results. This last point motivated them to keep in touch, personally
or by telephone, after the seminar and form small working groups.
Developing CALL Exercises
The lack of previous computer experience emerged as an important constraining
factor in the development of exercises. Because of the absence of
written documentation, the participants had to become gradually accustomed
to using on-line help and a quick reference list to make progress.
On further examination, this problem turned out to be little more than the
lack of practice at seeking help within the context of the computer itself.
The time factor was extremely important. Almost all the participants agreed
that developing the first exercise(s) took a lot or even too much time. On
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 77
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
later realizing that they could work much faster by using the previously
existing schema in the development of new exercises (i.e., by changing the
content and retaining the structure of an exercise), they concluded that
the time/exercise development ratio was reasonable. That graphics and
sound can be inserted in the exercises relatively simply was seen as a positive
point. Some participants who had already attended other seminars in
which they had worked with other authoring programs agreed that incorporating
graphics and sound was relatively easy in the program chosen for
this seminar.
Implementation Issues in Secondary Schools
A positive response from secondary school students to the self-access
exercises developed by the seminar participants was essential to the success
of the evaluation phase. Although the working conditions, computer
room capacity, and the actual capacity of the computers themselves varied
greatly from one school to another; the results in all schools were similar.
The students took to the new form of learning with enthusiasm. In all
cases they quickly learned to work the programs, which showed that the
design of the program and the exercises was ergonomically successful.
Even changing physical locations from the standard classroom to the computer
room proved motivating for the students. Even more motivating
was the concept of independent learning which led the students to ask for
more such work. These results are comparable to those obtained in various
experiments carried out using highly sophisticated programs. The vast
majority of seminar participants were in favor of the introduction of the
computer in language teaching, and any reservations expressed centered
on the working conditions in their own schools, as opposed to CALL itself.
The participants were keen to go on working in CALL.
CONCLUSIONS
To summarize, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. As shown by the questionnaire, the concept and the new teaching
resource were accepted by the participants. The official report of the
group coordinator (Fernández 1996) states
Basic training in the WinCALIS authoring program commands
was crucial, and the trainers, correctly in my opinion, combined
this basic training with immediate practice. Also, throughout the
course the trainers emphasized the formulation of teaching objectives,
without which the exercises developed would have been
little more than direct copies of the kind taken from many text78
CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
books. … We were sufficiently prepared for the implementation
phase, in which we had to develop our own exercises and implement
them in the classroom, since we had practice in designing a
range of exercises (multiple choice, gaps, questions & answers,
etc.) and we had been provided with examples developed by the
trainers and other participants, as well as graphic materials.
2. The results of the practical implementation phase confirm the success
of the trainer led concept adopted for the seminar learning phase.
3. Despite the growing sophistication of authoring languages, such as
WinCALIS, exercise development with relatively few commands motivates
language teachers to produce CALL materials and to use them
as a teaching resource.
4. Language teachers accept the need to self-train in the field of CALL
and highlight the importance of developing their own exercises as a
form of motivating their students.
5. Students react positively to the relatively simple exercises developed
by their teachers regardless of the great sophistication of other audiovisual
media with which they are familiar.
6. The concept of CALL, which the experiment set out to investigate,
would seem to be a viable one and deserves support by way of the
formation of small working groups or small interchange networks at
the city or local level rather than the large-scale networks in which the
contribution of individual teachers is minimal.
NOTES
1 The authors are members of the GTELTAO (Enseñanza de lengua y traducción
asistida por ordenador ‘Computer Assisted Language and Translation Teaching
Working Group’), the first Spanish working group in the field to be recognized by
a university, the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
2 For this seminar, the WinCALIS program developed by Duke University (USA)
was chosen since it ensured relatively quick learning of the techniques needed for
exercise development. See also Ensinger (forthcoming)
3These criteria were described in part by D. Ensinger and W. Neunzig in the proceedings
of the II Jornadas sobre la enseñanza del alemán ‘Second Workshop on
the Teaching of German’ organized by the Institute of Education Sciences,
Barcelona, 1995.
4 The demonstration program was “¿Ahora, tú?” developed by W. Neunzig (forthcoming),
containing 15 self-access computer lessons in Spanish as a Foreign Language.
Volume 14 Numbers 2-4 79
Martin Kreutzer and Wilhelm Neunzig
REFERENCES
Pilar de Diego. (1996). “Informe del Curso: La enseñanza de LL.EE. asistida por
ordenador.” Las Palmas.
Ensinger, D. (forthcoming) “Vermittung und Verarbeitung von Landeskundlichem
Wissen am Computer.” In Translationsdidaktik, edited by E. Fleischmann,
E. Kutz, and W. Schmitt, Tübingen: Narr.
Ensinger D., M. Kreutzer, W. Neunzig, Pique, and Presas. (1993). “La Enseñanza
de lengua y traducción asistida por ordenador.” Comunicación y Pedagogía
119.
María Cristina Pérez Fernández. (1996). “Enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras asistida
por ordenador: WinCALIS, Informe-Memoria.” Las Primps de Gran
Canaria.
Kreutzer, M., W. Neunzig, Pique, and Presas. (1993). “ELTAO Seminar in Las
Palmas de Gran Canana: Summary of an Experiment.” CALICO Journal
10.
AUTHORS’ BIODATA
Martin Kreutzer
Graduate in Translation and Interpreting from the Universität des
Saarlandes, Germany, Mr. Kreutzer worked as a freelance translator between
1985 and 1989, prior to taking up his present position as lecturer
in Translation Studies at the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canarias.
Wilhelm Neunzig
Graduate in Psychology and Translation from the Universität des Saarlandes
where he lectured on Language and Translation between 1976 and 1984,
Mr. Neunzig is currently lecturing on Translation Studies at the Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona. Both he and Mr. Kreutzer are founder members
of the GTELTAO group (Computer Assisted Language and Translation
Teaching Workshop Group)—the first research group in the field of computer
assisted language and translation teaching to be recognized by a
university in Spain.
AUTHORS’ ADDRESS
Martin Kreutzer
Wilhelm Neunzig
Facultat de Traducció - GTELTAO
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Phone: (343) 581 24 69
08193 Bellaterra - Barcelona Fax: (343) 581 10 37
E-mail: IUMAR@cc.uab.es
80 CALICO Journal
Computer Assisted Teacher Training
COMPUTER-ASSISTED
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Context and Conceptualization
Michael Levy
Although the development of Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL) has thus far been
fragmented, Michael Levy herein sets CALL in its
proper historical and interdisciplinary contexts, providing
a comprehensive overview of the topic.
Drawing on published work as well as an international
survey among CALL practitioners in eighteen countries,
he looks at the relationship between CALL’s theory
and application, its conceptual and practical roles
as tutor and tool. Levy also discusses CALL’s implications
for computer programming. Most books on
CALL focus on specific projects, and do so mainly
from a theoretical point of view, but this unique text
considers CALL as a whole, analyzing the utility of
the computer in language learning and teaching. A
detailed review of the current literature is matched with an in-depth examination of the
tutor-tool framework. An ideal introduction to the procedures and functions of CALL as
a multi-faceted reflection of today’s ever-evolving technology, Levy’s study will appeal to
students, researchers, and teachers of Applied Linguistics.
About the Author:
Michael Levy is a Lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the Center for Language Teaching
and Research, University of Queensland, Australia. He has written several articles on
CALL and related subjects.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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information, please call: 1-800-451-7556. In Canada, call 1-800-387-8020
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1997 320 pp. paper $26.00 cloth $65.00
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